Publications
This collection includes research by AWEI Fellows and others as well as resources relevant to Africa's wildlife economy.
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Featured publications
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Saving African Rhinos: A Market Success Story
/awei/sites/default/files/2011-SavingAfricanRhinos.pdfMr Michael 't Sas-RolfesWhile southern white rhino numbers rose, populations of the other rhino species declined. This included the African black rhino and three Asian species. Why did the white rhino thrive whereas the others did not.
Michael 't Sas-Rolfes (2011). Saving African Rhinos: A Market Success Story. Property and Environment Research Center (PERC) Report.
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An analysis of Game Meat Production and Wildlife-Based Land Uses on the Freehold Land in Namibia: Links with Food Security
/awei/sites/default/files/2011-GameMeatProductionAndWildlifeBasedLandUsesNamibia.pdfThe illegal trade in bushmeat represents a severe conservation threat in several African countries. However, in Namibia, wildlife-based land uses (WBLU) and the legal production of game meat have the potential to contribute significantly to conservation, food security and the economy of the country. This research presents insights into WBLU on freehold land in the country and links with food security gained from a survey.
Lindsey, P. (2011). An analysis of game meat production and wildlife-based land uses on freehold land in Namibia: links with food security.
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Wildlife Law in the Southern African Development Community
/awei/sites/default/files/2010-WildlifeLawInSADC.pdfPart I of this paper starts with an overview of the international legal instruments related to wildlife management, including those adopted at the regional level as it presents an overview of the legal framework applicable to wild animals in each of the fifteen SADC countries is in Part II of the paper.
Maria Teresa Cirelli, Elisa Morgera (2010). Wildlife Law in the Southern African Development Community. A joint publication of FAO and CIC. Budapest. 136 pp
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National Profile and Economic Impact of Biltong Hunters in South Africa 2010
/awei/sites/default/files/2010-NationalProfileAndEconomicImpactBiltongHuntersSouthAfrica.pdfThe aim of this research is to determine the economic impact that biltong hunting has on South Africa’s economy and communities.
Mr. M. Scholtz, Dr. P van der Merwe & Prof Dr. M . Saayman (2010). National Profile and Economic Impact of Biltong Hunters in South Africa 2010.
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Exploring the Role of Private Wildlife Ranching as a Conservation Tool in South Africa: Stakeholder Perspectives
/awei/sites/default/files/2008-RanchingAsConservationToolInSouthAfrica.pdfThis paper explores the benefits, limitations, and challenges of private wildlife ranching as a tool for conservation in South Africa through interviews with key stakeholders working within conservation and wildlife ranching, and through case studies of threatened species programs.
Cousins, J. A., J. P. Sadler, and J. Evans. 2008. Exploring the role of private wildlife ranching as a conservation tool in South Africa: stakeholder perspectives. Ecology and Society 13(2): 43. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art43/
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“Wilding the Farm or Farming the Wild”? The Evolution of Scientific Game Ranching in South Africa from the 1960s to the Present
/awei/sites/default/files/2008-TheEvolutionOfScientificGameRanchingInSouthAfrica.pdfThis article analyses in some detail the scientific developments relating to extensive game ranching for meat production in South Africa from the 1960s onwards. Initially, it recalls how game was utilised in South Africa in the nineteenth century and then reflects on the rise of the modern livestock industry and its detrimental effect on the herds of game that survived in the region into the twentieth century.
Jane Carruthers FRSSAf (2008) “Wilding the farm or farming the wild”? The evolution of scientific game ranching in South Africa from the 1960s to the present, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 63:2, 160-181, DOI: 10.1080/00359190809519220
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How to Improve Wildlife Production in South Africa
/awei/sites/default/files/2007-HowToImproveWildlifeProductionInSouthAfrica_0.pdfThis article discusses the factors that hamper the wildlife industry in South Africa where it highlights the biggest problems including how wildlife industry is fragmented into a production camp (agriculture) and a conservation camp (environmental). It makes recommendations that can possibly improve the industry.
J.G. du Toit & O.L. van Schalkwyk (2007). How to Improve Wildlife Production in South Africa
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Trade and Sustainable Land Management in Drylands
/awei/sites/default/files/2007-TradeAndSustainableLandManagementInDrylands.pdfDrylands cover 40 per cent of the earth’s land surface and are home to more than two billion people – a third of the world’s population – whose majority suffers from the poorest economic conditions. This publication aims to provide a wide range of perspectives from various stakeholders on how trade policies and processes could contribute to advancing the objectives of sustainable land management and sustainable development in dryland regions of the world.
International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (Geneva),. (2007). Trade and sustainable land management in Drylands. Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development.
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Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (CBD Guidelines)
/awei/sites/default/files/2004-AddisAbabaPrinciplesAndGuidelinesSustainableUseOfBiodiversity.pdfSustainable use of the components of biological diversity is one of the three objectives of the Convention and is addressed in Article 10, which requires Parties to adopt measures relating to the use of biodiversity to avoid or minimize impacts on biological diversity. In addition, the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro agreed on a comprehensive strategy for sustainable development, which highlighted the crucial role of sustainable use in maintaining the variability and variety of life, the biodiversity that "feeds and clothes us and provides housing, medicines and spiritual nourishment.
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2004) Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (CBD Guidelines) Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 21 p.
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An Economic View on Wildlife Management Areas in Botswana
/awei/sites/default/files/2003-EconomicViewWildlifeManagementAreasBotswana.pdfBotswana’s Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) date back to 1986 and covered around 22% of the country in 2003. Economic opportunities are usually very limited and most people living in these areas traditionally engage in hunting and gathering. This paper introduces three economic concepts (rent, value and prices) with the aim to encourage sound economic analysis as part of CBNRM planning and implementation in Botswana.
J. W. Arntzen. (2003). An Economic View on Wildlife Management Areas in Botswana
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Sustainable use and incentive-driven conservation: Realigning human and conservation interests
/awei/sites/default/files/2003-SustainableUseIncentiveDrivenConservation.pdfSustainable use has become, and still remains, a polarized within the conservation community.
Hutton, J., & Leader-Williams, N. (2003). Sustainable use and incentive-driven conservation: Realigning human and conservation interests. Oryx, 37(2), 215-226. doi:10.1017/S0030605303000395
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Private Supply of Protected Land in Southern Africa: A Review of Markets, Approaches, Barriers and Issues
/awei/sites/default/files/2001-PrivateSupplyOfProtectedLandInSouthernAfrica_0.pdfThis paper represents a first attempt to assess the role of the private sector in supplying protected land or ‘land under wildlife’ in southern Africa. Although limited information exists on private conservation initiatives, it is possible to conclude that the private sector plays an indispensable role in the provision of biodiversity in the region.
Wolf Krug. 2001. Private Supply of Protected Land in Southern Africa: A Review of Markets, Approaches, Barriers and Issues. Workshop Paper World Bank / OECD International Workshop on Market Creation for Biodiversity Products and Services.
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IUCN Policy Statement on Sustainable Use of Wild Living Resources
/awei/sites/default/files/2000-IUCNPolicyStatementOnSustainableUseOfWildLivingResources.pdfThis policy statement was adopted at the IUCN World Conservation Congress Amman, October 2000 in which it affirms sustainable use of wild living resources as an important conservation tool.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). (2000). IUCN Policy Statement on Sustainable Use of Wild Living Resources.
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Private Property Rights to Wildlife: The Southern African Experiment
/awei/sites/default/files/2000-PrivatePropertyRightsWildlifeSouthernAfrica.pdfPrivatization of control over the use of wildlife has had more success in promoting biodiversity in the southern African region than any other policy measure. Other parts of the world may be able to benefit from the lessons learned from the successes of southern African nations in privatization and commercialization of wildlife.
Kay Muir-Leresche & Robert H. Nelson, 2000. "Private Property Rights to Wildlife: The Southern African Experiment," ICER Working Papers 02-2000, ICER - International Centre for Economic Research.
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Integrating Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Rules of the World Trade Organization
/awei/sites/default/files/1999-IntegratingImplementationOfTheConventionOnBiologicalDiversityAndTheRulesOfTheWorldTradeOrganisation.pdfThe WTO and the CBD are historically and institutionally distinct, but they find themselves increasingly linked through the many ways. Because they have developed separately, and involve very different communities, there is a risk that the rules and policies of one regime could hinder the effectiveness of the other, in the absence of efforts to reconcile the two. In response to this risk, this paper seeks to encourage sustainable development by examining and building upon aspects of these two international regimes that complement each other.
Downes, David R. 1999. Integrating Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Rules of the World Trade Organization. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge UK. xvi + 89pp.
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Game Ranching in Machakos District, Kenya: An Application of Mathematical Programming to the Study of Wildlife Policy
/awei/sites/default/files/1998-GameRanchingInMachakosDistrictKenya-ApplicationOfMathematicalProgramming.pdfThis study employed a bioeconomic, mathematical programming model to analyse ranch resources allocation among cattle and game animals, and Kenya's wildlife conservation and game harvesting policies.
Kinyua, P.I.D. (1998). Game ranching in Machakos District, Kenya: An application of mathematical programming to the study of wildlife policy.
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WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT SERIES: Quota Setting Manual
/awei/sites/default/files/1997-WWFQuotaSettingManual.pdfCAMPFIRE aims to re-establish the links which used to exist between rural people and their natural resources. By giving rural communities the option to manage their wildlife, the government wishes that these communities can benefit as well as share in the responsibility for managing the resource as provided for in the legislation. This manual is designed to inform people involved in wildlife management within rural districts about the importance of quota setting and provide some biological background to quotas.
WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature (1997). Wildlife Management Series: Quota Setting Manual. [Published: 1997]
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Elephants, Rhinos and the Economics of the Illegal Trade
/awei/sites/default/files/1997-ElephantsRhinosAndTheEconomicsOfTheIllegalTrade.pdfThe June 1997 meeting of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was something of a turning point for wildlife trade policy. The eight-year old ban on international trade in elephant products was relaxed slightly... What happens next? Are the latest CITES measures an appropriate way to tackle the problem of elephant poaching? Was the decision to maintain a complete ban on rhino products the correct one?
Michael ’t Sas - Rolfes (1997). Elephants, Rhinos and the Economics of the Illegal Trade. Pachyderm No. 24
Research
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Does CITES work? - Four case studies
/awei/sites/default/files/1997-DoesCITESWork.pdfCan CITES trade measures replace the need for effective field protection? The following four case studies suggests that it cannot.
Michael ‘t Sas-Rolfes. 2008. Does CITES work? - Four case studies. IEA Environment Briefing No.4. ISBN 0-255 36442-3.Research
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Economic and Financial Incentives for Wildlife Use on Private Land in Namibia and the Implications for Policy
/awei/sites/default/files/1996-EconomicAndFinancialIncentivesForWildlifeUseOnPrivateLandNamibia.pdfAggregate estimates for wildlife populations and species diversity on private land in Namibia were made for 1972 and 1992. Financial profitability was generally low with both livestock-game production for consumptive use and wildlife production for non-consumptive use.
Barnes, Jonathan & Jager, J.. (1995). Economic and Financial Incentives for Wildlife Use on Private Land in Namibia and the Implications for Policy. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res.. 26.
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Communities As Resource Management Institutions
/awei/sites/default/files/1993-IIED-CommunitiesAsResourceManagementInstitutions.pdfResource use without resource management is non-sustainable. But equally any attempt to establish resource management without resource use is likely to be futile…
The evidence is that communities can become effective institutions for sustainable resource management, but only if they are granted genuine proprietorship, that is, the right to use resources, determine the mode of usage, benefit fully from their use, determine the distribution of such benefits and determine rules of access.
Communities As Resource Management Institutions by Professor Marshall W. Murphree, Director of the Centre of Applied Social Sciences, University of Zimbabwe. IIED GATEKEEPER SERIES NO. SA36, 1993.
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Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living
/awei/sites/default/files/1991-IUCN-UNEP-WWF-CaringForTheEarth.pdfThe successor to the World Conservation Strategy published in 1980, this global strategy for a sustainable society, is intended to restate current thinking about conservation and development in an informative and encouraging way, and is orientated towards practical action. It sets targets for the changes in our lives that will move us towards a sustainable society and urges a concerted effort to make this ethic a global force in personal, national and international relations.
Munro, D A, and Holdgate, M W. (1991) Caring for the Earth. Gland, Switzerland.
Source: Caring for the earth : a strategy for sustainable living | IUCN Library System
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World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development
/awei/sites/default/files/1980_WorldConservationStrategy.pdfThe World Conservation Strategy is intended to stimulate a more focussed approach to the management of living resources and to provide policy guidance on how this can be carried out by three main groups mentioned in the article.
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (1980). World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development.
Source and HTML version: World conservation strategy : living resource conservation for sustainable development | IUCN Library System
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Overview of the IPBES Sustainable Use Summary
31 Aug 2022
Produced by Naturealliance
Overview of the IPBES Sustainable Use Summary for Policymakers
(as agreed at the IPBES Plenary 9, Bonn, in July 2022)
The Summary for Policymakers is structured into layers of information. The first page gives the headings for the four sections of the SPM and the sub-headings for the three sub-sections in each. As each sub-heading is a conclusion of 1-3 lines, the result is a summary cum content-table.
The next page is an Introduction, giving a definition of Sustainable Use, and of Wild Species, before tabulating (Fig 1) eight main types of use (ceremony, decoration, energy, food, education, construction, medicine, recreation) involving four categories of extractive use and one non-extractive for four broad categories of wild species: there are aquatic and terrestrial divisions for animals, with flora considered as either trees or the smaller species (of plants, fungi and algae).
In the following main body of the assessment, each of the four headings (A,B,C,D) has a short paragraph of explanation, followed by the sub-headings (1,2,3), each with 3-16 sections of conclusion-headed text. The text refers richly to the material in the six chapters (1148 pages) that constitute the full Assessment. Each reference comes with one of four categories for qualitative evidence, with “well-established” having best quality, quantity and consistency, through “established but incomplete” and “unresolved” to “inconclusive”. After some 26 pages in this format comes a three-part Appendix: two pages describe the five sustainable use categories (also defining “socio- ecological systems” and “transformative change” and with a four-box model for the confidence of evidence used, followed by two-pages on knowledge gaps.
Under heading A, “Sustainable use of wild species is critical for people and nature”, sub-head A.1 makes clear that billions of people in all regions of the world rely on and benefit from the use of more than 70,000 wild species for food, medicine, energy, income and many other purposes; 2.1 billion rely for fuel and 70% of the world’s poorest people depend directly. Mapping such engagement to the Sustainable Development Goals indicates the substantial overlooked potential of sustainable use for meeting SDG targets (Fig 2).
Heading A.2 focusses on the importance of wild species to indigenous people and local communities, for which the management of sustainable use based on local knowledge can be documented long-term for 87 countries (Fig 3). A.3 addresses a concern that the report might consider only the sustainability of use of wild species, while ignoring benefits of use for conserving species and their ecosystems. Thus, the position of IUCN in 2000, which initiated the AAPG process, is reflected in Section A.3.1 sub-head “Effective management systems that promote the sustainable use of wild species can contribute to broader conservation objectives” before A.3.2 addresses overexploitation.
Although the conservation-through-use aspect is handled extensively in the chapters of the assessment, the SPM focuses most strongly (in A.3.3) on the fact that IPLCs manage 38 million km² of land, which is noted to be 40% of total conserved areas.
Section B, on status and trends in use, looks more extensively at sustainability of use. From IUCN’s Red Lists, use is considered sustainable for 34% of wild species assessed but to create extinction risk for 28-29%. Well-managed fisheries are considered to be most sustainable at present, with only a third of important marine species now over- fished. For five categories of use in which data are adequate to assess trends during last twenty years (Fig 4), sustainability is considered to be improving in large scale fisheries for food, and to be maintained in gathering (of plants, algae and fungi) for food, gathering for aesthetics and harvesting of terrestrial animals for recreation, whereas sustainability of harvesting terrestrial animals for food is assessed as declining.
Sustainability of use for seven further categories is highly variable or unresolved, not least because of an inadequacy of indicators.Section B also looks in detail at processes affecting use. Complexity arises because a multiplicity of drivers (increasingly including climate change) and mediating factors act across the use categories to affect socio-ecological sustainability outcomes (Fig 5). It is pleasing in B.2.4 to see appreciation of the constraints on farming species to reduce demand, as well as realisation that this ‘solution’ can have negative implications for livelihoods, habitat conservation, animal welfare and zoonotic disease. The importance of rights for indigenous peoples in general are considered (B.2.6), as well as issues arising from land-tenure (B.2.7), gender (B.2.8) and trade (B.2.11), but also conflict, culture, science and education. Best-practice guidelines are needed for ecotourism and paucity of indicators is again noted as an issue. Social indicators and those for gathering and for harvesting of terrestrial animal are deemed most deficient (Fig 6).
Section C addresses key elements and conditions for the sustainable use of wild species, including policies, tools and instruments, not least customary institutions and rules. An ’apple-pie-and-motherhood’ aspect of the assessment is the C.1 heading that “Policy instruments and tools are most successful when tailored to the social and ecological contexts of the use of wild species and support fairness, rights and equity”. Conditions for successful planning of protected areas are considered in C.2, which also addresses cases of return to sustainability for large-scale and local fisheries. The importance of monitoring is emphasised and C.3 notes that “Scientific evidence is often limited, and indigenous and local knowledge is underutilized and undervalued”. At C.3.2, who would dispute that “Bringing together scientists and holders of indigenous and local knowledge improves decision-making”?
A consideration of the future in Section D conceives of problems from further changes in human demand and technologies, as well as climate change. The seven key elements that the report identifies for enhancing sustainability of use of wild species include “inclusive and participatory decision-making, inclusion of multiple forms of knowledge and recognition of rights, equitable distribution of costs and benefits, policies tailored to local social and ecological contexts, monitoring of social and ecological conditions and practices, coordinated and align policies, and robust institutions from customary to statutory”. The ability of current conditions to meet these requirements (which to a large extent reflect AAPG recommendations) is assessed in terms of “binding agreements”, “voluntary agreements” and “certification schemes”. While fishing is deemed to be well covered by agreements and certification schemes, harvesting of terrestrial animals is considered subject only to voluntary agreements (Fig 8). However, there can be no contention about the final headings “The world is dynamic and to remain sustainable, use of wild species requires constant negotiation and adaptive management. It also requires a common vision of sustainable use and transformative change in the human-nature relationship” at D.3 and, ultimately, “The sustainable use of wild species will benefit from … a more systemic view that humanity is part of nature” at D.3.4.
This technical overview was prepared by the team at Naturalliance
Photo credit: © Adrian Lombard
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In a complex and changing world, AWEI generates strategic ideas, conducts independent analysis on wildlife economies, and collaborates with global scholar-practitioners to provide training and expertise for biodiversity conservation, climate resilience, and inclusive economic opportunities in Africa.
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In a complex and changing world, AWEI generates strategic ideas, conducts independent analysis on wildlife economies, and collaborates with global scholar-practitioners to provide training and expertise for biodiversity conservation, climate resilience, and inclusive economic opportunities in Africa.